apothecaries' system

An important exception to this rule is that the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia was under rule of the Habsburg monarchy 1814–1859 and therefore had the extremely large Habsburg apothecaries' pound of 420 g. (See below under The Habsburg standard.) However, some cities kept local copies of the standard. Centuries later, the region around Salerno was the only exception to the rule that (except for skipping units that had regionally fallen out of use) the apothecaries' ounce was subdivided down to the scruple in exactly the same way as in the Roman system: It divided the ounce into 10 drachms. it was increased by 7%, and it was now very close to the troy standards. Its history and connections to the English and Flemish standards are discussed below under Weight standards named after Troyes. 82–86 | last=Riedel | first=T.

Metrication in countries using the troy and avoirdupois systemsBritain was initially involved in the development of the metric system, and the US was among the 17 initial signatories of the Metre Convention in 1875.

The British troy pound retained its value of 373.202 g until in 2000 it was legally defined in metric terms, as 373.2417216 g. [Schedule 1 of [http://www.statutelaw.gov.uk/legResults.aspx?LegType=All+Legislation&title=weights+and+measures+act&Year=1985&searchEnacted=0&extentMatchOnly=0&confersPower=0&blanketAmendment=0&TYPE=QS&NavFrom=0&activeTextDocId=2191980&PageNumber=1&SortAlpha=0 Weight and Measurements Act 1985] , as amended in 2000 by the Units of Measurement Regulations 1994.] The Flemish troy pound became the standard for the gold and apothecaries' system in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands; it was also used in this way in Lübeck.In 1414, six years before the Treaty of Troyes, a statute of Henry V of England gave directions to the goldsmiths in terms of the troy pound.

The British apothecaries' system was based on the troy pound until metrication, and it survived in the United States and Australia well into the 20th century.Since the modern (English, American and Imperial) troy ounces are roughly 1.5% heavier than the late Paris ounce, the exact historical relations between the original "marc de Troyes", the French "poids de marc", the Flemish trooisch pond and the English troy pound are unclear.

The basic apothecaries' system consists of the units pound, ounce and scruple from the classical Roman weight system, together with the originally Greek drachm and a new subdivision of the scruple into either 20 ("barley") or 24 ("wheat") grains (Latin: grana). The British apothecaries' system was based on the troy pound until metrication, and it survived in the United States and Australia well into the 20th century. I | location=London | pages=p. grana). It was standard to use the "marco", defined as 8 ounces, instead of the pound. The weight of an apothecaries' pound ranged generally between 300 g and 320 g, slightly less than that of a pound in the Roman Empire. In 1555, a weight standard for the apothecaries' pound of 12 ounces was set in Nuremberg.

Yet in spite of enthusiastic support for the new system by intellectuals such as Charles Dickens, these two countries were particularly slow to implement it. But it would have doubled the value of the avoirdupois drachm (an existing unit, but by then only used for weighing silk). E.g. cite book | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=LnUAAAAAMAAJ | title=Universal Dictionary of Weights and Measures, Ancient and Modern | last=Alexander | first=J.H. )In the US, the metric system replaced the apothecaries' system in the US Pharmacopoeia of 1971.Notes and referencesFurther reading****External links* [http://www.lib.umich.edu/tcp/docs/dox/medical.html Apothecaries' symbols] * [http://www.imperialtometric.com/conversion_en.htm Online Apothecaries' Converter].

With 30.6 g, the ounces were considerably heavier than other apothecaries' ounces in Romance countries, but otherwise the French system was not remarkable. Even in Turkey a system of weights similar to the European apothecaries' system was used for the same purpose. cite book | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=LnUAAAAAMAAJ | title=Universal Dictionary of Weights and Measures, Ancient and Modern | last=Alexander | first=J.H.

", "An acre is not an acre, nor a bushel a bushel, if you travel but ten miles. 979 | year=1860 | last=Dunglison | first=Robley | url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zgqN7_Kn3tEC&pg=RA11-PA979 ] The Irish proposal was not widely adopted, but British legislation, in the form of the Medicinals Act 1858, was more radical: It prescribed the use of the avoirdupois system for the United Kingdom (then including Ireland), with none of the traditional subdivisions. (The troy pound was already declared illegal for most other uses by the Weights and Measures Act of 1878.

As a consequence the official apothecaries' pound was now 375.000 g, i.e. in Kraft treten soll, wird durch Königliche Verordnung festgesetzt werden. [26][40], The apothecaries' pound in Venice had exactly the same subdivisions as those in the non-Romance countries, but its total weight of 301 g was at the bottom of the range.

The range from 25 g to 31 g is filled with numerous variants, especially the Italian range up to 28 g. But there is a relatively large gap between the troy ounces of 31 g and the Habsburg ounce of 35 g. The latter is the product of an 18th-century weight reform.

Since the modern (English, American and Imperial) troy ounces are roughly 1.5% heavier than the late Paris ounce, the exact historical relations between the original "marc de Troyes", the French "poids de marc", the Flemish trooisch pond and the English troy pound are unclear. Extreme cases were Rome and Genoa, where the same system was used for everything, including medicine. […] At present the two systems are in use with the apothecary, for his purchases are made in avoirdupois, and his sales generally, though not always, in Troy weight. [59], Another reform in 1856 increased the civil pound from 467.711 g to 500.000 g (the German civil pound defined by the Zollverein), as a first step towards metrication.

82–86 | last=Riedel | first=T.

Its history and connections to the English and Flemish standards are discussed below under Weight standards named after Troyes. Its history and connections to the English and Flemish standards are discussed below under Weight standards named after Troyes.

With full metrication, effective January 1821, the Netherlands reformed the trooisch pond. Ein von dem Handelsgewichte abweichendes Medizinalgewicht findet ferner nicht statt. [ cite book | last=Squire | first=P.

[49][50] Under the name Nuremberg pharmaceutical weight (German: Nürnberger Medizinalgewicht) it would become the standard for most of the north-east of Europe. in the Netherlands the Dutch troy pound of 369.1 g was standardized in 1820 to 375.000 g, to match a similar reform in France.

März 1867 betreffend das Preußische Medicinalgewicht] .] – Die schwierige Bestimmung alter Arznei- und Medizinalgewichte", "Königl. I | location=London | pages=p. it was increased by 7%, and it was now very close to the troy standards. [ cite book | title= A manual of chemistry | last=Brande | first=W.T.

Nur an wenigen Orten werden beide Arten der Gewichte unterschieden und Medicinalgewicht bei dem Einkauf der Arzneiwaaren im Großen von dem Apothekergewicht bei der Anfertigung und dem Einzel-Verkauf in den Apotheken getrennt. The history of mediaeval medicine started roughly around the year 1000 with the school of medicine in Salerno, which combined elements of Latin, Greek, Arabic and Jewish medicine. But it would have doubled the value of the avoirdupois drachm (an existing unit, but by then only used for weighing silk). (For background information, see History of Italy during foreign domination and the unification.)

März 1867 betreffend das Preußische Medicinalgewicht] .]

Vom 26. ), In the Romance speaking part of Europe the scruple was divided in 24 grains, in the rest of Europe in 20 grains. ["§4. März 1867 betreffend das Preußische Medicinalgewicht, Pharmacopoeia pro Republica Augustana, 1613, Pharmacopoeia Collegii Regalis Londini, 1677, Pharmacopoea Collegii Londinensis Medicor, 1746, https://infogalactic.com/w/index.php?title=Apothecaries%27_system&oldid=2946444, Pages with citations using unsupported parameters, Articles with inconsistent citation formats, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, About Infogalactic: the planetary knowledge core. This innovation was first used in the united British pharmacopœia of 1864.

In France, at some stage the apothecaries' pound of 12 ounces was replaced by the larger civil pound of 16 ounces. […] §8. Many attempts were made to reconstruct the exact mass of the Roman pound.

As in France, the way in which the Flemish troy ounce was subdivided depended on what was weighed.

Vom 26. In 2002, the FDA recalled medicine sold in four ounce bottles because the measuring cup enclosed only had metric units. For medical purposes the tcheky (approx. cite book | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=rWcOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA94 | pages=p. [11][12] In old merchants' handbooks the former system is sometimes referred to as the pharmaceutical system, and distinguished from the apothecaries' system.[1][13][14]. In 1414, six years before the Treaty of Troyes, a statute of Henry V of England gave directions to the goldsmiths in terms of the troy pound. (At this time its use was already illegal for all purposes except trading precious metals. (The reform was not followed in the north German city of Lübeck, which continued to use the trooisch pond.) In some countries other units of the original system remained in use, for example in Spain the "obolo" and "siliqua". ;Iberian PeninsulaOn the Iberian Peninsula, apothecaries' weights in the 19th century were relatively uniform, with 24 grains per scruple (576 grains per ounce), the standard in Romance countries.

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